Question 2
"Late Qing history is a history of China's responses to foreign challenges."
Comment on the above viewpoint with reference to the period 1850~1912.
Late Qing history is not simply a history of China's responses to foreign
challenges. From 1850 to 1912, the Qing Dynasty faced a lot of challenges
from both foreign countries and local provinces. The foreign challenges
were
in terms of military, economy and culture, whereas the local ones were
in the
form of rebellions and anti-foreign activities. To analyse the nature of
responses
made by the Qing China to such problems, the period 1850~1912 should be
broadly divided into 3 stages.
The first period was from 1850 to 1894 when the Sino-Japanese War
(1894-95) broke out. The First Treaty Settlement resulted from the First
Anglo-
Chinese War brought economic changes to the coastal cities in China, while
the Second Treaty Settlement after the Second Anglo-Chinese War (1856-60)
further changed the economic and social lives of the coastal cities. With
the
treaties signed between the Qing government and Western countries, the
Qing
rulers started to carry out reform measures (mainly in military terms)
to imitate
the foreigneers in response to foreign challenges. Such a series of reform
measures was collectively called the Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-94).
Besides this governmental reaction to foreign challenges, the Chinese people
in different provinces also conducted several anti-foreign activities such
as the
Tianjin Massacre (1870) and the Margary Affair (1875) in response to foreign
imperialism.
However, it should not be neglected that there were also several local
turmoils during this period. Examples include the Taiping Movement (1854-63),
the Miao Rebellion (1850-72), the Nian Rebellion (1853-68) as well as the
Muslim Rebellion (1855-74). These uprisings were aroused by the discontent
to the Qing rulers from local elements rather that induced by foreign activities.
All these rebellions were of larger scale than the foreign activities in
coastal
China, and were affecting a lot more people than those living in coastal
cities.
Even the effort of the Qing government which was spent on putting down
these
revolts were larger than that on settling external matters. Therefore,
it should
be remarked that this period of history was more characterised by responses
toward internal conditions than foreign challenges.
The second period started from 1895 and ended in 1900. The end of
and the treaty resulted from the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) opened the
door of China for further foreign aggression. The armies and navies of
Qing
China were seriously defeated in the war. The political and economic status
of China was disturbed and changed in the Scramble for Concessions in
1898. In terms of religion, there were more missionary activities in China
which later aroused Chinese discontent towards foreigners. The Qing rulers
responded to these challenges by organizing the Hundred Days' Reform in
1898 which, however, was bound to be a failure in the same year. While
the
government responded by giving reforms, local people started their anti-
foreign activities which was later known as the Boxer Uprising (1900).
Since
this period of history was more characterised by foreign imperialism, this
period of history can be classified as one with major responses to foreign
challenges.
The third period started from 1901 when the Late Qing Reform started
and ended in 1912 when the Qing Dynasty was overthrown. Foreign challenges
were not so drastic as before since the foreigners learned not to easily
provoke
the Chinese as they did just before teh Boxer Uprising. Their influences
in the
Chinese society were changed form into political ideas such as demanding
for
constitutional government and even a republican one. Meanwhile, there were
still some economic exploitations and missionary activities. However, these
were not so much focused by Chinese peoplee as they did in the previous
decade. What was more serious in the view of the Qing rulers was the
revolutionary activities inspired by western ideas. There were many
revolutionary groups formed against the Manchus. Though the size of these
groups were small, the government was alerted that they would somehow
merge together soon so as to rebel against and overthrow the Qing Dynasty.
As a result, the government carried out the Late Qing Reform in 1901 to
regain her lost support on the one hand and suppressed the revolutionary
activities on the other. Thus, the last period of Qing history was featured
mainly by the Manchu government's responses to local turmoils.
In conclusion, though foreign imperialism had exerted great changes to
the Chinese society after the Anglo-Chinese Wars in teh 1840's and 1850's,
local events which necessarily needed the government's responses should
not be overlooked. The late Qing period should by no means be regarded
as
mere responses to foreign challenges.